ABSTRACT

Objective

The aim of this study is to evaluate the characteristics affecting food choices in professional basketball players using the Athlete Food Choice Questionnaire (AFCQ) and to investigate the effect of age, gender, and player position variables on food choice.

Methods

The study included 197 professional basketball players (102 men and 95 women). Data for the study were collected using the Turkish or English versions of the AFCQ, along with participants’ demographic information. Data were analyzed using SPSS 26.0; kurtosis and skewness were used to assess normality. Independent-groups t-tests and analysis of variance were used for variables that met the assumption of normality, while Spearman’s correlation and appropriate non-parametric tests were used for variables that did not.

Results

Age and gender significantly affected some AFCQ subscale scores, and the overall consistency of the positions performed was also significant. Female athletes scored significantly higher than male athletes in the ”emotional effects” (p=0.011) and “emotional appeal” (p=0.001). Athletes under the age of 18 scored significantly lower than athletes in other age groups on “nutritional properties of food,” “emotional effects,” “food and health awareness,” “weight control,” “food values and beliefs,” and “performance” (p<0.05).

Conclusion

Age and gender are important variables that determine the food choices of professional basketball players. Therefore, age- and gender-focused individualized education programs can contribute to improving nutrition in athletes, thereby enhancing performance and reducing the risk of sports injuries.

INTRODUCTION

Athletes are a unique group distinct from the rest of society because factors related to sports and performance influence their food choices (1, 2).

Nutrition is considered one of the fundamental elements of athletic performance (3). This is because nutrition is considered a critical component for enhancing performance, facilitating physiological adaptations, and preventing injuries in athletes (4).

Basketball is one of the most popular sports in the world, played by men and women of all levels and ages (5). Basketball is classified as a sport that combines aerobic and anaerobic activities (6).This sport involves short periods of high-intensity activities such as sprinting, quick changes of direction, acceleration, deceleration, and running backwards, as well as short periods of low-intensity activities such as walking, jogging, and recovery periods, which place high demands on anaerobic/aerobic capacity (7). This, in turn, places high physical and physiological demands on basketball players, particularly with respect to nutrition.

In the general population, factors such as age, gender, education level, and income can influence food choices (8, 9). In addition, many factors such as cost, taste, and availability affect food choices (10). Unlike those of the general population, athletes’ food choices may be influenced by numerous factors, such as impacts on athletic performance, food preparation, coaches’ and teammates’ influence, and sports culture (10).

Although studies on determinants of food choice are widespread, it is noted that these studies have not been conducted in specific populations (11). For this reason, the authors aimed to evaluate the factors affecting food choice in basketball players, who have unique characteristics and physiological needs. They hypothesized that variables such as gender, age group, and playing position may influence food selection among basketball players.

METHODS

The study was designed as a survey. Data collection for the study began after obtaining approval from the University of Health Sciences Türkiye, Bakırköy Dr. Sadi Konuk Research and Training Hospital Non-Interventional Scientific Research Ethics Committee (approval no: 2025-17-05, date: 17.09.2025). Written informed consent was obtained from all adult participants. For participants younger than 18 years, written informed consent was obtained from their parents or legal guardians, and assent was obtained from the participants themselves. Those with known food allergies, food intolerances, previous surgical treatment related to the digestive system, diagnosed chronic diseases, or who did not sign the informed consent form were not included in the study.

No personal information was used for any basketball player who agreed to participate in the study. The following information for all participants was recorded on questionnaire forms and subsequently transferred to a computer database.

• Gender,

• Age (grouped as under 18, 18-25, and over 25),

• Position played,

• Height,

• Weight,

• Body mass index (BMI).

All basketball players who agreed to participate in the study completed the Athlete Food Choice Questionnaire (AFCQ). This questionnaire uses a 1 (never) to 5 (always) rating scale and was originally developed to identify food choice determinants in English-speaking populations (12). This questionnaire consists of 32 items representing nine factors: nutritional characteristics of food, emotional effects, food and health awareness, influence of others, eating habits, weight control, food values and beliefs, emotional appeal, and performance. For basketball players whose native language is Turkish, the previously adapted Turkish version of this questionnaire was used (13). For basketball players whose native language is not Turkish, the original English version of the questionnaire, designed for English-speaking populations, was used. All players’ responses were recorded separately for statistical analysis.

Statistical Analysis

Data analysis was performed using SPSS 26.0 and was conducted at a 95% confidence level. In this study, skewness and kurtosis coefficients were examined to determine the suitability of the variables for a normal distribution. Skewness and kurtosis values obtained from the variables ranging between +3 and -3 were considered sufficient for normal distribution (14-16). Normality was achieved for skewness and kurtosis values between -3 and +3, but not for variables outside this range. Accordingly, the relationships between height and scale scores and between weight and scale scores were tested using Pearson correlation analysis, while the relationship between BMI and scale scores was tested using Spearman correlation analysis. Differences in scale scores by gender were analyzed using the t-test, whereas differences by age and playing position were analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA). If a difference was found in the ANOVA test, the post-hoc analysis was performed using the lysergic acid diethylamide test.

RESULTS

A total of 197 basketball players were included in the study. Among the participants, 60.9% (n=120) were under 18 years old, 26.4% (n=52) were between 18 and 25 years old, and 12.7% (n=25) were over 25 years old. Regarding gender distribution, 51.8% (n=102) of participants were male and 48.2% (n=95) were female. When evaluating positions played, participants were distributed as follows: 20.8% (n=41) guards, 13.7% (n=27) point guards, 21.8% (n=43) shooting guards, 25.4% (n=50) power forwards, and 18.3% (n=36) centers. The participants’ height ranged from 150 cm to 219 cm, with an average of 185.9±12.69 cm. Body weight ranged from 48 kg to 118 kg, with an average of 77.18±14.18 kg. BMI ranged from 17.09 to 42.22, with an average of 22.2±2.58.

Table 1 presents the average responses of all study participants to the 9 questionnaire headings.

Data on the relationship between determinants of food choice and age show that the “nutritional properties of food” score is 3.49±0.77 in the under-18 group, 3.78±0.75 in the 18-25 age group, and 3.89±0.81 in the over-25 age group. The ANOVA test revealed a significant difference between the groups (F=4.290, p=0.015). Post-hoc analyses show that this difference is due to lower scores in the under-18 group compared with those in the 18-25 and over-25 age groups. The “emotional effects” score was 2.51±1.06 in the under-18 group, 2.62±0.98 in the 18-25 age group, and 3.11±1.27 in the over-25 age group. A significant difference was observed between the groups (F=3.207, p=0.043); post-hoc analyses indicate that the under-18 group scored lower than the over-25 group. The “food and health awareness” score is 3.51±0.70 in the under-18 group, 3.85±0.79 in the 18-25 age group, and 3.94±0.76 in the over-25 age group. A significant difference was observed between the groups (F=6.063, p=0.003); post-hoc analysis showed that the under-18 group scored lower than the other two age groups. The “influence of others” score is 2.91±0.88 in the under-18 group, 2.67±0.91 in the 18-25 age group, and 2.80±1.06 in the over-25 age group. There is no significant difference between the groups (F=1.287, p=0.278). The “normal eating practices” score was 3.26±0.84 in the under-18 group, 3.40±0.86 in the 18-25 age group, and 3.72±0.89 in the over-25 age group. There is a significant difference between groups (F=3.092, p=0.048), with the under-18 group scoring lower than the over-25 group. The “weight control” score is 3.48±0.84 in the under-18 age group, 4.05±0.70 in the 18-25 age group, and 4.11±0.77 in the over-25 age group. There was a significant difference between the groups (F=13.033, p<0.001); the under-18 group had a lower score than the other two age groups.The “food values and beliefs” score is 2.21±1.00 in the under-18 group, 2.69±1.13 in the 18-25 age group, and 2.55±1.30 in the over-25 age group. A significant difference between the groups was observed (F=3.811, p=0.024); the under-18 group scored lower than the 18-25 age group. The “emotional attractiveness” score is 3.96±0.80 in the under-18 group, 3.92±0.88 in the 18-25 age group, and 4.15±0.73 in the over-25 age group. There is no significant difference between the groups (F=0.678, p=0.509). The “performance” score is 4.28±0.78 in the under-18 group, 4.54±0.80 in the 18-25 age group, and 4.69±0.43 in the over-25 age group. There is a significant difference between the groups (F=4.371, p=0.014), and the under-18 group has a lower score than the other two age groups.

Data on the relationship between participants’ responses and gender are presented in Table 2.

According to the data in Table 2, the “nutritional properties of food” score is 3.63±0.83 for men and 3.61±0.74 for women. The independent- groups t-test found no significant difference (t=0.096, p=0.924). The “emotional effects” score is 2.43±1.08 for men and 2.82±1.05 for women. There is a significant difference between the groups (t=-2.580, p=0.011); women’s scores are higher than men’s. The “food and health awareness” score is 3.58±0.75 for men and 3.74±0.74 for women. No significant difference was observed between the groups (t=-1.465, p=0.145). The “influence of others” score is 2.91±1.01 for men and 2.76±0.79 for women. No significant difference was observed between the groups (t=1.158, p=0.248). The “usual eating practices” score is 3.32±0.93 in men and 3.40±0.77 in women. There is no significant difference between the groups (t=-0.712, p=0.478). The “weight control” score is 3.63±0.84 in men and 3.79±0.85 in women. No significant difference was observed between the groups (t=-1.285, p=0.200). The “food values and beliefs” score is 2.24±1.04 for men and 2.54±1.13 for women. There is no significant difference between the groups (t=-1.946, p=0.053). The “emotional attractiveness” score is 3.80±0.85 for men and 4.16±0.72 for women. A significant difference between the groups (t=-3.232, p=0.001); women’s scores were higher than men’s. The “performance” score is 4.34±0.80 in men and 4.46±0.73 in women. There is no significant difference between the groups (t=-1.069, p=0.286).

The relationship between participants’ answers and the positions they played is shown in Figure 1.

According to the data in Figure 1, the “nutritional properties of food” score is 3.60±0.89 for the guard position, 3.52±0.94 for the point guard position, 3.73±0.72 for the shooting guard position, 3.70±0.73 for the power forward position, and 3.48±0.69 for the center position. The ANOVA test found no significant difference (F=0.695, p=0.596). Emotional effects scores are 2.54±1.07 for the guard position, 2.48±1.19 for the point guard position, 2.55±1.06 for the shooting guard position, 2.66±1.08 for the power forward position, and 2.85±1.04 for the center position. There is no significant difference between the groups (F=0.627, p=0.644). The “food and health awareness” score is 3.52±0.80 for the guard position, 3.59±0.77 for the point guard position, 3.77±0.61 for the shooting guard position, 3.77±0.75 for the power forward position, and 3.57±0.81 for the center position. There is no significant difference between the groups (F=1.045, p=0.385).The “influence of others” score is 2.83±1.01 for the guard position, 2.63±1.01 for the point guard position, 2.73±0.98 for the shooting guard position, 2.91±0.74 for the power forward position, and 3.03±0.84 for the center position. There is no significant difference between the groups (F=0.965, p=0.428). The “normal eating practices” score is 3.29±0.88 for the guard position, 3.02±0.98 for the point guard position, 3.45±0.79 for the shooting guard position, 3.52±0.80 for the power forward position, and 3.35±0.85 for the center position. There is no significant difference between the groups (F=1.673, p=0.158).The “weight control” score is 3.73±0.93 for the guard position, 3.76±1.00 for the point guard position, 3.81±0.75 for the shooting guard position, 3.65±0.83 for the power forward position, and 3.60±0.78 for the center position. There is no significant difference between the groups (F=0.421, p=0.793). The “food values and beliefs” score is 2.50±0.98 for the guard position, 2.15±1.01 for the point guard position, 2.46±1.21 for the shooting guard position, 2.27±1.19 for the power forward position, and 2.47±1.01 for the center position. No significant difference was observed between the groups (F=0.667, p=0.616). The “emotional attractiveness” score is 4.11±0.75 for the guard position, 3.49±0.91 for the point guard position, 4.14±0.72 for the shooting guard position, 3.99±0.69 for the power forward position, and 3.96±0.95 for the center position. The ANOVA test revealed a significant difference (F=3.288, p=0.012). According to the post-hoc analysis results, the Emotional Attractiveness score is higher in the guard, shooting guard, power forward, and center positions than in the point guard position. The performance score is 4.38±0.78 for the guard position, 4.42±0.79 for the point guard position, 4.46±0.91 for the shooting guard position, 4.47±0.59 for the power forward position, and 4.24±0.76 for the center position. No significant difference was observed between the groups (F=0.551, p=0.699).

DISCUSSION

The most important finding of this study is that age and gender affect food choices in professional basketball players, whereas playing position does not.

Previous studies in the literature have shown that gender is an important factor in dietary differences (17, 18). Food choices are significantly influenced by health beliefs, and since men and women have different health beliefs, differences in food choices are expected (19). In their study evaluating the food choices of athletes competing in international competitions, Pelly and colleagues used a questionnaire different from the AFCQ and found that there were differences between men and women in the factors influencing food choice (2). Thurecht and colleagues also investigated the variables affecting food choices of athletes in international competitions and used the AFCQ in this study (20). This study found that the food selection criteria of “performance” and “emotional effects” affected female athletes’ food choices more than males (20). Carey et al. (21) evaluated food selection in athletes in the Irish population using the AFCQ and found differences between women and men in terms of “food and health awareness,” “nutritional values,” “emotional appeal,” and “emotional effects”. They emphasized that “emotional effects” are more important in women’s food choices. Sevim et al. (13), in their work on the Turkish validation of the AFCQ, showed that “influence of others,” “emotional effects,” and “emotional appeal” were more effective in female athletes’ food choices, while “weight control” was a more effective variable in male athletes’ food choices. In our study, we separately examined the effects of AFCQ parameters on food selection among female and male athletes. Consistent with other studies, we found differences in food selection between female and male athletes. In the present study, significant gender differences were observed only in the emotional effects and emotional appeal, with female athletes scoring higher than male athletes. No statistically significant gender differences were found for nutritional properties of food, food and health awareness, influence of others, usual eating practices, weight control, food values and beliefs, or performance.

Few studies have evaluated the relationship between athlete age and food choice. Carey et al. (21) evaluated food choice in athletes in the Irish population using the AFCQ. In this study, they found that for every 10-year increase in age among athletes, the effect of “nutritional values” on food selection increased, the effect of “emotional influences” on food selection decreased with age, and the effect of “influence of others” also decreased with age. In our study, we evaluated the relationship between age and food selection factors identified using the AFCQ. We examined the average scores of athletes under 18 years of age, athletes between 18 and 25 years of age, and athletes over 25 years of age in the areas of “nutritional properties of food,” “emotional effects,” “food and health awareness,” “weight control,” “food values and beliefs,” and “performance”. We found that athletes under 18 years of age had lower average scores than athletes aged 18-25 and athletes over 25 years of age.

Nutrition is one of the fundamental factors that determines not only the physical and psychological health of athletes, but also their athletic performance, risk of injury, and recovery time after injury (22). However, the current literature reveals that athletes experience various difficulties in adhering to recommended nutrition protocols and often make food choices that do not meet their performance requirements (13, 23). This situation can increase the incidence of injuries and lead to prolonged rehabilitation periods, especially in sports such as basketball, which involve high energy requirements and injury risks. A study conducted in Türkiye found that athletes who had previously received nutrition education demonstrated a significant increase in awareness of factors such as “nutrition and health awareness,” “nutritional properties of foods,” “weight control,” and “established eating habits. This finding demonstrates that nutrition education has a direct effect on eating behaviors. Therefore, implementing individualized nutrition education programs for elite athletes may contribute to reducing the risk and frequency of injuries both directly and indirectly.

Study Limitations

As with any study, this one has certain limitations. First, because the study had a cross-sectional design, the relationship between variables cannot be interpreted as causal. The collection of data using self-report methods may lead to recall bias and social desirability bias. Since the study was conducted only on professional basketball players, the generalizability of the findings to different sports or amateur athletes is limited. Furthermore, the interaction between cultural and environmental factors and food choices was not directly assessed. Although the factors influencing food choices have been identified, the lack of examination of athletes’ actual food consumption levels and their relationship with performance or injury outcomes constitutes a limitation.

CONCLUSION

The present findings suggest that age and gender are important determinants of food choice among professional basketball players, while playing position generally has no significant effect. The findings show that young and male athletes, in particular, pay less attention to health and nutritional values in their food choices. Considering the effects of nutrition on injury, performance, and physiology, individualized nutrition education tailored to athletes’ age and gender characteristics can contribute both to the development of nutritional habits and to sports performance and recovery processes, with the aim of eliminating negative effects.